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Like other children, the gifted children too have certain basic needs such as need for love, for security, for belonging and the need to be accepted as an individual. In addition to these basic needs, the gifted children may have certain special needs like-

• the need for knowledge and understanding
• creativity and ingenuity
• the development of his exceptional ability or abilities and
• the need for self-actualization or self-expression

The gifted child thus strives for the satisfaction not only of basic needs but also has to have the opportunity and the facilities for the realization of the above mentioned specific needs. In case he experiences difficulty in the accomplishment of these needs he becomes disturbed mentally as well as emotionally. This leads to a short maladjustment and he becomes a problem child.

The gifted child needs a proper environment for his development. He wants to be understood carefully in response to his different needs and problems. The gifted child is exceptionally curious and has a thirst for knowledge and is, therefore, in the habit of asking searching questions. The parents as well as the teachers who do not understand his urges, usually snub him. Sometimes, he wants appreciation for his ingenuity in a scientific field or creativity in the arts, but does not get it. Consequently, he feels insecure and rejected and any sort of mishandling or carelessness on the part of teachers or parents further aggravates the situation and he becomes a nuisance.

Incase the gifted child gets undue attention and appreciation, he becomes too conscious of his superiority and develops a boastful and supercilious attitude. He cannot adjust with his fellow students. He considers them inferior and foolish and may even dislike them, while they, in turn become jealous of him. They do not accept his superiority and begin to reject him. The gifted child, in this way, does not get recognition from his peers and faces a sort of social rejection. This perturbs him and as a result, he either becomes withdrawn or aggressive and hostile. (continue reading…)

This is the oldest of all transfer theories (also known as the Faculty Theory) . This theory assumes that the mind of composed of so many independent faculties, e.g. memory, attention, imagination, reasoning and judgment. These faculties, according to this theory, are nothing but the “muscles of the mind” and like muscles of the body, can be strengthened or improved through exercise (practice and use). In this way, such properly strengthened or improved faculties later on function automatically in all the situations and areas in which they are involved. For example, if the memory of a person is strengthened or improved, to a great extent, through memorization of long and difficult passages, then it can prove useful in memorizing dates, names, formulae, figures and, in fact, anything and everything that involves memory. In the same way, propagators of the theory claim that reasoning and imaginative powers developed through the study of geometrical positions can be used in solving various problems in life which demand a good deal of reasoning and imagination.

Mental discipline as an educational doctrine and as the basis for transfer of training was first seriously challenged by William James. He wanted to see whether daily training in the memorization of a poetry of one author would affect the learning of poetry of another author. For this experiment he acted as a subject for himself. He memorized 158 lines from Victor Hugo’s Satyr in 131 5/6  minutes spread over eightdays. He then worked for about 20 minutes daily memorizing the entire book of Milton’s Paradise Lost (Book-I). This required 38 days. After this period of memory training, he returned to Satyr and memorized 158 additional lines. But now he could do so in 151 1/2 minutes as against 131 5/6 minutes in the first instance. (continue reading…)

The notion that individuals differ in various abilities, capacities and personality characteristics necessitates the adoption of individual tendencies in education. It compels the teachers to realize following facts:

1. In any group there are individuals, who deviate from the norms of the group. Along with the average, the presence of very superior and extremely dull is equally possible in his class.
2. Every teacher should try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities, capacities, interests, attitudes, aptitudes and other personality traits of his pupils and in the light of this knowledge should render individual guidance to children for maximum utilization of their potentialities.
3. It is wrong to expect uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a particular field from a group of students. On account of their subnormal intelligence, previous background, lack of proper interest, aptitude and attitude some students have to lag behind in some or other area of achievement.
4. All students can not be benefited by one particular method of instruction and a uniform and rigid curriculum.

Provisions for ‘individual differences’ in Schools:

Realization of the above facts or some more of their nature makes us think that we must have some provision for the wide individual differences among our pupils in our schools. Emphasizing this need Crow and Crow (1973) write –

“Since we supposedly are teaching individuals, not groups of individuals, it is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular limitations to provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from every other learner.”

How can we accomplish this task is a pertinent question to be asked at this stage. In fact, to provide adequate schooling or learning experience for every learner according to his individuality is not a simple task. However, the following suggestions can be helpful for any teacher –

1. Proper knowledge of individual personalities: The first step in making provisions for individual differences is not how abilities, capacities, interests, aptitudes and other personality traits of individual pupils. For this purpose, frequent assessment in the form of intelligence tests, cumulative record card, interest inventories, attitude scales, aptitude tests and measures for assessing personality traits shall be carried out.
2. Ability grouping: In the light of results derived from various tests of knowing individual differences in terms of individual potentialities in various dimensions, the students in a class or area of activity can be divided into homogeneous groups. Such divisions can prove beneficial in adjusting the method of instruction to varying individual differences.
3. Adjusting the curriculum: To meet the requirement of varying individual differences among the pupils, the curriculum should be as flexible and differentiated as possible. It should have the provision for a number of diversified courses and curriculum experiences so that the pupils may get opportunity to study and work in the areas of their own interests and abilities. It should provide adjustment to suit the local requirements and potentialities of students of different groups.

(continue reading…)

Written by My former Colleague and Retired Teacher Mr. P. C. Ray

Adolescents start using alcohol or drugs at pre-adolescents period generally being induced by their friends.

Early use of drugs or alcohol may lead to problem behaviors like stealing, lying, dependence, non- attendance of school and poor performance in education. They may even indulge to promiscuous sexuality.

Peer pressure acts upon their character to do bad things. So parents should be cautious to choose good environment as environment is flexible and has immense influence on the body, mind and soul of the learners.

Family expectations should be according to the merits of the child. Over ambition may lead the learner adolescents to astray owing to frustration.

Adolescents need good guidance with sympathy. Physical changes during adolescence period affect the mind and s, it is the most crucial period. The future depends on the good management of this period. It is the period of rapid growth. At this stage greater risk is involved for emotional and physical harm. Parents should know that, alcohol is vulnerable to the physical and mental growth of the children.

Parents should listen to the problems of the adolescents carefully and try to understand their feelings. Children should be helped to build self-confidence. A hopeful future depends on the understanding of the family standards by the adolescents. The adolescents should be asked and pursued to look at their future career on the basis of their understanding of themselves and the family.

Praise is necessary for god action. Recognition is a must. At this stage everyone wants to be recognized. If they fail to draw the attention through good actions, they take the other road of violence for overt attention.

Strong moral values, good hobbies, real friendship, sports, co-curricular activities must be encouraged. Parents should keep touch with the teachers and the peers for the proper growth of their off-spring.

At last, parents should know that at the age group of 15-24; most drug addict children die because of accidents, suicides and homicides as these are all alcohol related. Children drink to get drunk and get a kick. At picnic parties, the children get lost as they have no aims to grind. At this stage, alcohol is abused and not used. So take care to debar your children from all kind of addictive drugs.

Development is the continuous progressive change in the organism. It is a total process. But psychologists have analyzed it from the different aspects. Individual aspect is called aspect of development. This includes physical, mental, social, emotional, and moral development. Total personality needs well balanced development of all these. Our main topic of discussion is the mental development. Mental development means development of mental traits like development of perception, memory, imagination, thinking, reasoning intellect etc. All these help a man to acquire elevated experiences. So many of modern psychologists call all these characteristics mental development or cognitive development. Jean Piaget’s concept of the cognitive development of children have drawn attention of all the psychologists and it has gained recognition to its utility in the sphere of education. So we have to mention about Piget’s concepts regarding the cognitive stages of development of a child.

Adaptation is the main basis of Piaget’s concepts of cognitive development. In other words it is the biological adaptation which is the very foundation of development. With the growth of age, a child tries to adapt itself with the environment. This results in the behavioral and cognitive change. Piaget has remarked that this adaptation helps him in two fundamental actions – one is assimilation and the other is accommodation. While assimilation takes place within his known environment, in accommodation a child accepts new behavior. Accommodation is the occupation of new experiences under the influences of environment. Observing the gradual development in the behavior of a child, Piaget has determined the characteristics of his adaptation. On the basis of this – he mentioned five fundamental stages of of cognitive development of a child.

The stages are -

• Stage of sensory-motor thinking
• Pre-conceptual stage
• Stage of institutive thought
• Stage of concrete operation
• Stage of formal operation

From birth upto the stage of two years is the stage of sensory-motor actions. Sense organs makes a child sensitive. Basing on these two actions, it tries to direct its thoughts and acquires experiences. As for example, sucking is a natural sensory action. at the stage of 8 to 12 months, he tries to adjust and acquire experiences. Sensation caused by sound is a common experience to a child. This makes him utilize his power of thinking. For example, a child expects its mother when it hears the sound of door being opened. All these experiences are completely his own. He at this stage, is not influenced by the thoughts of the adults. Reactions are created at the stage of sensory-motor thinking and he may hold or form reflections of those only.

The child reaches at the second stage called Pre-Conceptual Stage when he can form some pre-concepts based on his past experiences. Pre-concept is not so expanded as true concept nor is it a complete whole of the isolated experiences. When a child feeds a doll, he utilizes his own experiences of taking food and expands his own experiences too. Still the experience is not flawless nor is the concept. Such type of pre-concept may lead him to wrong decisions. Yet the primary action of forming concepts starts. this stage of development, according to Piaget, continues from the age of 2 to 4.

The next stage of the cognitive development of a child is called stage of intuitive thought. This stage expands from 4 to 8 years. the characteristics of pre-conceptual stage takes a complete change with a purpose of placing the base of concepts on solid foundations and making them practical and more expanded. The difficulties of thinking which exists at pre-conceptual stage get eliminated and active realistic thoughts develop. A child may utilize linguistic guidance then. His mental representations and actions become flexible and susceptible to change. At this stage he may form some primary concepts about important topics. As for example a place may be full or empty. Anything can take place. There is a time-gap between the two incidents. They may gather some experiences re-arranging those of the old. The may re-arrange their mental representations and form some concepts. That is why Piaget has called this stage, stage of intuitive thought.

The next stage of cognitive development expands from 8 to 11 years. This stage is called period of concrete operation. Generally some operational thoughts form centering some basic concepts. In other words, when the children make synthesis in the fundamental thoughts, their active or rational thinking begins. It is found that at this stage of development they arrange their practical experiences and give those new shapes. But this trait of their thoughts is observed under reality. Still some concepts are formed. Fundamental concepts at this stage are -

• Classes
• Relation
• Number of concepts

Piaget has mentioned another characteristic at this age. According to him, when children make a synthesis among the concepts, they determine those concepts by some principles. He has mentioned five such principles -

1. Principle of closure
2. Principle of reversibility
3. Principle of associativity
4. Principle of identity
5. Principle of interaction

Though the children form some realistic concepts at this stage, those can never be universally applicate. In other words though the ideas are formed, power of abstract thinking does not develop then.

The last stage of cognitive development is the period of formal operation which continues from 11 to 15 years. At this stage, the thoughts of a child are not controlled by his practical experiences or personal observation. He acquires power of abstract thinking. at this stage, he according to the situation, leads his thinking freely to different directions on the basis of hypothesis. Cognitive development at this stage become mature. he activates his thinking and takes decisions.

To form such concept about cognitive development of a child, Piaget has mainly depended on observational experiences of different situations and experimental data. He and his assistants have had so many experiments on this. In support of their concept they have supplied many information based on truth. It can not be denied that the information suffers from some weakness, still this concept has been applied in modern teaching and learning. The process through which a child, in its infancy gathers experiences is mainly self-centric and this is not influenced by the chain of thoughts of the teachers. Experiences gathered by the children upto age of 8, are completely their own. Formal education upto the stage of intuitive thought is not welcome. A child, when he reaches at the stage of concrete operation, forms concepts facing realities. So, education at this stage, should always be realistic. Chances of logical subjective learning should be affected to them only when they reach at the age of 11, i.e. period of formal operation.

We are unable to retain or recall everything that we learn everyday in our life. Many of the experiences slip away from our memory with the passage of time. this is called forgetting.

We are always learning something. But if we always learn and retain every experience, the pressure of the accumulated complex will make us loose our normalcy. In the absence of forgetting it will be difficult for us to accommodate new ideas in our already overcrowded memory. Forgetting leaves space for the settling in of new ideas. In this sense it is also an essential condition for good memory as Ribot has pointed out. It does not imply that we should forget everything that we have learned. To retain or to forget everything is not ideal and harmful. Fearful and unpleasant memories should be forgotten quickly, otherwise they will haunt us. But we forget many essential things and hence get into trouble.

Causes of Forgetting:

There are some subjective and objective conditions of forgetting. These we commonly call causes of forgetting. These causes hamper the processes of learning and retention.

• Length of the learning material is a factor of forgetting. The more is the time taken in learning, the quicker is the rate of forgetting. Attitude or interest of the learner is an important factor in forgetting. Prose pieces are learnt with much pains at the cost of much time. Forgetting in the case of prose materials sets in quickly.
• Under learning is another important causes of forgetting. If the lesson is half learnt, forgetting will be very quick.
• Injury or shock to the brain is another cause of forgetting. We all know about the shock of amnesia.
• Forgetting often takes place due to the influence of drugs. Narcotic drugs make the neurones ineffective. As a result drug addicts become forgetful.
• Retroactive inhibition is often the cause of forgetting. When we learn anything, some time is taken for its consolidation. We often try to learn lots of things within a short span of time, one after another. In all such cases later experience casts influence on the previous experiences. Many things become blurred and forgetting sets in. Hindrance in the previous learning owing to the effect of later learning is called retroactive inhibition.
• Forgetting may often set in due to mental fatigue. Long work of tiring mental work makes us mentally fatigued and exhausted. Our alertness is lowered. Forgetting becomes natural due to mental fatigue.
• Forgetting may also become regular for want of proper rest. Rest, pause helps in consolidation. Want of proper sleep is often the cause of forgetting.
• The psychoanalysts are of the opinion that “we forget because we want to forget!” We repress unpleasant memories into the unconsciousness. we want to forget the sorrows and horrors of life. So we forget them pretty soon.

Forgetting is often due to objective causes but mostly mental conditions are inherent in those cases. The influence of the unconscious mind is often active in making us forget. In order to minimize forgetting, we are to remove the possible causes of unconscious motivations for forgetting. To avoid forgetting we are to learn properly that would enhance our retention power.

Most of us have some wrong notions about memory. In commonsense view memory is considered to be an abstract noun. To be more explicit, we consider memory as a quality of the mind. In the older days, memory was considered to be a faculty of mind. Practice and exercise increase our strength. So it was thought that the faculty of memory can be strengthened through memory training. But since then the concept of memory has undergone huge changes. According to modern day psychologists, memory is nether a quality of the mind nor it is a faculty of the mind. Memory is a mental process. More specifically, it is the process of memorization.

According to great educationists Woodworth, memory implies the activity of remembering. The process of remembering involves four factors – learning, retention, recall and recognition. What we remembered, must must have been previously learnt and retained and at the time of recall it must be reproduced in such a way that the relationship between the original and reproduced be clearly recognized. According to Stout,

“Memory is the ideal revival, so far as the ideal revival is more reproductive, in which the subjects of past experience are reinstated as far as possible in the order and manner of their original occurrence”.

According to modern education psychologists Ross,

“Memory is a complex process involving the establishment of dispositions, their retention and the recalling of experiences that have left behind them”.

Thus memory is a complex mental process and is comprised of several other mental processes.

1) Learning :

Pupils get lessons to heart through repeated exercise. Accumulation of experience through through efforts is called learning. Some psychologists like to call it registration. Learning is the process of modification of behavior through experience and training. It is the first factor in the process of memorization. There will be no memory if we fail to collect experiences through learning. We learn skills through trials and errors. Our likes, disikes, and common behavior patterns are mostly due to conditioning. Higher forms of learning can be categorized as insightful learning. We can not have memory of anything which we have not learnt. Hence, the first and the first and the most important step in memory is learning or registration.

2) Retention:

The learnt material requires to be retained. We can not retain everything we learn. Only some portion of the material we learn is retained in memory. Retention is better when we follow the spaced method, whole method or any activity-based method. Nature of the material is a factor which influences retention. According to Muller, impressions are retained in our memory in the form of memory trace. Modern view holds that retention takes place in the form of structural changes in the neurones.

3) Recall & Recognition:

The third factor of memory is reproduction. It consists of recall and recognition. Recall consists in reviving an experience, or in reproducing previously learnt material. this previously learnt material may be an incidence, a fact or an action. Recognition consists in knowing an object that has been experienced; in being acquainted with an object now because we previously became acquainted with it. We sometimes recognize a person without being able to recall where and when we have seen him. More can usually be recognized than can be recalled. Faces can be easily recognized than they can be recalled. Often a name can not be recalled but yet is confidently recognized when heard. Sometimes we recall name correctly but think that we have not got it right. Here we recall without recognizing. The main object of recall is mental image and that of recognizing after-image. Ideal revival of past experience takes place through recall or recognition or through both of these processes.

Classification of Memory:

Psychologists have classified memory in various ways. Burgson is of the opinion that we often recollect our past experiences habitually. In such cases learning takes place through mechanical repitition. He has called it habit memory. This memory can also be called rote memory.

Sometimes, in our bid to recollect past experiences, we take help of memory images. We call such memory as true memory. In true memory learning takes place logically. So true memory has also been called logical memory.

Recall of incidents immediately after learning indicates immediate memory. Remembering experiences of remote past involves permanent memory.

Some psychologists have classified memory into personal memory and impersonal memory. The impressions what we collect personally and retain in our minds belong to personal memory. Experiences which we gather from others and retain in mind belong to impersonal memory. Personal memory is more important but lesser in number.

Some of the psychologists have classified memory into five, on the basis of of different sensation derived through our sense organs. So, these are visual memory, auditory memory, tactual memory, olfactory memory and gustatory memory.

Memory is active when we remember with active efforts. When remember is automatic, memory is passive.

Conditions For Good Memory:

The conditions for effective learning, good retention and good recall are in fine tune with conditions for good memory too.

1. From the point of view of materials to be learnt, the methods of learning may be the whole method or part method. In the whole method all the learning materials are taken together and learnt with repeated efforts. On the other hand, when the subject matter is divided into several convenient parts and learnt one after another, its is part method. The whole method is an effective condition of learning. Subject matters should not be presented as isolated fragments. Those should rather be structured into relatively large units which are meaningful in terms of the student’s activity.
2. Pupils very often carry on their continued efforts to memorize any material in one sitting. Also at some other time, they enjoy breaks within their study periods and put forth spaced efforts for mastering the learning material. It has been definitely proved that spaced learning is more effective and helpful.
3. There are two more processes of learning. Those two processes involve active learning and passive learning. In the process of active learning, the learner tests his achievement from time to time by reciting the learning material. In the proocess of passive learning, the learner goes on repeating the subject matter till it is learnt. Active learning has been proved to be an effective condition of learning and consequently a condition for good memory.
4. Methods of learning often helps students to learn effectively and form good memory. Teaching, with the help of verbal aids only is not always effective. Proper teaching aids are to be used. Learning by doing helps pupils to form good memory. so learning should involve proper exercise of the relevant sense-organs.
5. Pupils are to be motivated to learn. The lessons should be interesting to keep pupils attentive. Motivation, attention and interest will help in better retention and quick recall. So learning governed by motivation and interest is one of the conditions for good memory.
6. Over learning is another condition for better memory. A certain degree of over learning is always to be encouraged as it helps in better retention.
7. Sleep or rest after an active phase of learning helps retention. These inhibit retroactive inhibition. Materials memorized in a hurry and without any rest/pause tend to interfere with one another.
8. Recall of past experiences takes place through association. to form better associations – students should look for similarity, contiguity or contrast. this will help in effective recall.
9. Recall may be direct or indirect. Recall which takes place unaided is direct recall. Direct recall is an effective condition for god memory.

So what we find is that, memory depends on the co-ordinated activities of the factors underlying it.